| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
|
|
|
|||||||
|
|||||||||
Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Mississippi, Jackson, Mississippi 39216
PREGNANCY IS A
COMPLEX PHYSIOLOGICAL condition that involves the integration of
a variety of regulatory and organ systems. Many aspects of maternal and
fetal adaptations during pregnancy have been addressed by recent
publications in the American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory,
Integrative and Comparative Physiology. Articles include
investigations on cardiac, vascular, endothelial (1, 7),
renal (17), respiratory, gastrointestinal
(39), uteroplacental (12, 36, 38, 48, 55, 56, 63,
68, 71-74), and neuroendocrine changes during pregnancy.
Cardiovascular (19) and neurohumoral (41, 49,
66) and metabolic (3, 4, 8, 18) adaptations in the
fetus have also been a subject of great interest. Much attention has
also been given to the impact of hypoxia, glucocorticoids, and other
stressors on the development of the fetus and newborn.
Normal pregnancy is associated with marked hemodynamic alterations
within the maternal circulation, including increases in cardiac output
and plasma volume and reductions in vascular resistance and arterial
pressure. Associated with these changes are marked alterations in the
activity of various neurohumoral systems and in vascular and
endothelial function. Hines and colleagues (33-35) recently reported that stimulation of volume-sensitive cardiac mechanoreceptors elicits an attenuated reflex effect on blood pressure
and renal function. Furthermore, these investigators reported
baroreceptor afferent as well as cardiac receptor afferent discharge is
reduced during pregnancy (33-35). These investigators postulate these changes in reflex function are an important adaptation that allows plasma volume expansion during pregnancy.
The reduction in arterial pressure in the face of marked increases in
cardiac output during pregnancy is due to a considerable decrease in
vascular tone. An increase in nitric oxide (NO) during normal pregnancy
has been suggested to mediate decreases in vascular resistance by
direct actions and by blunting the vascular responsiveness to
vasoconstrictors such as angiotensin II and norepinephrine (16,
57). This concept is supported by recent reports that the
expression (2) and activity of NO synthases are elevated during normal pregnancy and that the plasma level and urinary excretion
of cGMP, a second messenger of NO and a mediator of vascular smooth
muscle relaxation, are increased during pregnancy. Moreover,
pharmacological blockade or targeted disruption of NO synthases
markedly attenuates the reduction in vascular resistance and blood
pressure during pregnancy (11, 32). Inhibition of NO
synthesis has also been recently shown to modulate the reduction in
vascular smooth muscle intracellular calcium concentration (52) and protein kinase C activity (40) that
normally occurs during pregnancy. Furthermore, the vascular
responsiveness to vasoconstrictors such as angiotensin II is markedly
enhanced during pregnancy when NO synthase is inhibited. Finally,
recent studies in American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory,
Integrative and Comparative Physiology have reported that the
vascular actions of NO during pregnancy are attenuated by
hyperlipidemia (53) and alcohol intake (15).
The renal circulation is particularly affected during normal pregnancy.
Both renal plasma flow and glomerular filtration rate increase to
40-80% above normal in humans and 20-40% in pregnant rats.
Mechanisms underlying the marked renal vasodilation during pregnancy
have been a subject of intensive investigation. Although numerous
factors may be involved in this renal hyperemia, recent studies have
implicated NO as an important mediator of the renal hyperfiltration
during pregnancy (27, 45). Pregnancy is associated with
enhanced renal expression and activation of NO synthase
(2). Nonselective and selective inhibition of NO synthase
isoforms also attenuate the renal hemodynamic changes during pregnancy (1). Recent studies have suggested that the hormone
relaxin is an important factor that mediates the enhanced renal
hyperemia and production of NO during pregnancy (17). It
also appears that relaxin enhances NO production by an endothelin B
receptor-mediated mechanism (17). The interaction between
relaxin and the renal endothelin system remains to be an important area
of investigation.
The influence of various neurohumoral and metabolic factors on fetal
physiology and development of the cardiovascular (7, 46, 60, 64,
69), renal, gastrointestinal (14, 61, 62),
neuroendocrine (42), hemopoietic (10, 65),
and pulmonary (37, 54) systems has also been an important
area of investigation. In particular, much attention has been directed
toward studying the impact of various stressors such as hypoxia
(5, 13, 28, 30, 43, 44, 70), malnutrition (25, 31,
67), glucocorticoids, infection (23, 29), alcohol,
nicotine (26), and other factors (6) on the
mother and the fetus. This is a clinically important area of
investigation because maternal-fetal stress is a major factor for poor
obstetric and infant outcomes, including spontaneous abortion,
prematurity, and intrauterine growth restriction as well as
susceptibility to cardiovascular and metabolic disease throughout life.
Numerous epidemiological studies have reported an association between
low birth weight and the risk of hypertension. The inverse relationship
between low birth weight and hypertension suggests that factors present
in the prenatal environment that affect fetal growth are responsible
for the in utero programming of arterial blood pressure control.
A number of studies published in American Journal of
Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology have
focused on the effect of glucocorticoids and other stressors on fetal development and its impact on blood pressure regulation later in life.
Although antenatal glucocorticoid administration is used to improve
lung function in human premature newborns, data emerging from humans
and animal studies indicate antenatal glucocorticoid administration can
significantly affect the cardiovascular, renal, and metabolic
alterations essential to postnatal adaptation at birth. Although the
mechanisms by which antenatal glucocorticoids impact postnatal
circulatory function are unclear, abnormalities in vascular, cardiac,
neurohumoral, and autacoid functions appear to be involved (20,
21, 51). Segar et al. (59) recently reported that
postnatal increases in arterial pressure and renal sympathetic nerve
activity seen with glucocorticoid treatment are not mediated by
stimulation of peripherally accessible angiotensin type 1 receptors.
They also suggest that augmented cardiovascular function in
glucocorticoid-treated premature lambs is dependent, in part, on a
generalized sympathetic excitatory response that is mediated by central
mechanisms (59). Ervin and colleagues (24)
reported that the alterations in postnatal blood pressure regulation in
lambs exposed to glucocorticoids preterm occurs despite reductions in
plasma cortisol, catecholamines, and circulating levels of angiotensin
II. Interestingly, in another study by Brabham et al. (9),
it was reported that the environment provided by a healthy mother
during postnatal period can prevent the detrimental effects of prenatal
glucocorticoid administration on cognitive function. Because of its
significant clinical implications, it is quite obvious that more
studies are needed to determine the underlying mechanisms whereby
antenatal exposure to glucocorticoids and other stressors such as
malnutrition and hypoxia affect the physiology of the fetus and the newborn.
Because the renin-angiotensin system has been implicated in the
morphogenesis and growth of the kidney throughout fetal development, investigators have also been interested in studying factors that regulate renin secretion in the developing fetus (22, 47, 50). Draper et al. (22) recently examined the role
of renal nerves on renal secretion in the mature ovine fetus. They
reported that renal nerves are required for the renin secretory
mechanisms and responsiveness of renin mRNA to
ARTICLE
TOP
ARTICLE
REFERENCES
-adrenergic
stimulation but not for the basal expression of renin in the fetal
kidney. In another study by Marsh and colleagues (47),
insulin-like growth factor (IGF) was found to chronically enhance
plasma renin activity and concentration, implicating IGF as another
modulator of renin secretion during fetal development.
| |
FOOTNOTES |
|---|
Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: J. P. Granger, Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Mississippi Medical Center, 2500 N. State St., Jackson, MS (E-mail: jgranger{at}physiology.umsmed.edu).
The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
10.1152/ajpregu.00562.2002
| |
REFERENCES |
|---|
|
TOP
ARTICLE
REFERENCES
|
|---|
1.
Abram, SR,
Alexander BT,
Bennett WA,
and
Granger JP.
Role of neuronal nitric oxide synthase in mediating renal hemodynamic changes during pregnancy.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
281:
R1390-R1393,
2001
2.
Alexander, BT,
Reckelhoff JF,
Kassab S,
and
Granger JP.
Differential expression of renal nitric oxide synthase isoforms during pregnancy in rats.
Hypertension
33:
435-439,
1999
3.
Anderson, MS,
Flowers-Ziegler J,
Das UG,
Hay WW, Jr,
and
Devaskar SU.
Glucose transporter protein responses to selective hyperglycemia or hyperinsulinemia in fetal sheep.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
281:
R1545-R1552,
2001
4.
Anderson, MS,
He J,
Flowers-Ziegler J,
Devaskar SU,
and
Hay WW, Jr.
Effects of selective hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia on glucose transporters in fetal ovine skeletal muscle.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
281:
R1256-R1263,
2001
5.
Angeles, DM,
Williams J,
Purdy RE,
Zhang L,
and
Pearce WJ.
Effects of maturation and acute hypoxia on receptor-IP(3) coupling in ovine common carotid arteries.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
280:
R410-R417,
2001
6.
Auman, JT,
Seidler FJ,
and
Slotkin TA.
Regulation of fetal cardiac and hepatic beta-adrenoceptors and adenylyl cyclase signaling: terbutaline effects.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
281:
R1079-R1089,
2001
7.
Barbera, A,
Giraud GD,
Reller MD,
Maylie J,
Morton MJ,
and
Thornburg KL.
Right ventricular systolic pressure load alters myocyte maturation in fetal sheep.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
279:
R1157-R1164,
2000
8.
Bassett, JM,
and
Hanson C.
Prevention of hypoinsulinemia modifies catecholamine effects in fetal sheep.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
278:
R1171-R1181,
2000
9.
Brabham, T,
Phelka A,
Zimmer C,
Nash A,
Lopez JF,
and
Vazquez DM.
Effects of prenatal dexamethasone on spatial learning and response to stress is influenced by maternal factors.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
279:
R1899-R1909,
2000
10.
Brace, RA,
Langendorfer C,
Song TB,
and
Mock DM.
Red blood cell life span in the ovine fetus.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
279:
R1196-R1204,
2000
11.
Brooks, VL,
Clow KA,
Welch LS,
and
Giraud GD.
Does nitric oxide contribute to the basal vasodilation of pregnancy in conscious rabbits?
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
281:
R1624-R1632,
2001
12.
Brownbill, P,
Mahendran D,
Owen D,
Swanson P,
Thornburg KL,
Nelson DM,
and
Sibley CP.
Denudations as paracellular routes for alphafetoprotein and creatinine across the human syncytiotrophoblast.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
278:
R677-R683,
2000
13.
Buchholz, J,
and
Duckles SP.
Chronic hypoxia alters prejunctional 
2-receptor function in vascular adrenergic nerves of adult and fetal sheep.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
281:
R926-R934,
2001
14.
Buddington, RK,
Elnif J,
Puchal-Gardiner AA,
and
Sangild PT.
Intestinal apical amino acid absorption during development of the pig.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
280:
R241-R247,
2001
15.
Cook, JL,
Zhang Y,
and
Davidge ST.
Vascular function in alcohol-treated pregnant and nonpregnant mice.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
281:
R1449-R1455,
2001
16.
Cox, BE,
Williams CE,
and
Rosenfeld CR.
Angiotensin II indirectly vasoconstricts the ovine uterine circulation.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
278:
R337-R344,
2000
17.
Danielson, LA,
Kercher LJ,
and
Conrad KP.
Impact of gender and endothelin on renal vasodilation and hyperfiltration induced by relaxin in conscious rats.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
279:
R1298-R1304,
2000
18.
Das, UG,
He J,
Ehrhardt RA,
Hay WW, Jr,
and
Devaskar SU.
Time-dependent physiological regulation of ovine placental GLUT-3 glucose transporter protein.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
279:
R2252-R2261,
2000
19.
Di Maso, NA,
Caiozzo VJ,
and
Baldwin KM.
Single-fiber myosin heavy chain polymorphism during postnatal development: modulation by hypothyroidism.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
278:
R1099-R1106,
2000
20.
Docherty, CC,
Kalmar-Nagy J,
Engelen M,
Koenen SV,
Nijland M,
Kuc RE,
Davenport AP,
and
Nathanielsz PW.
Effect of in vivo fetal infusion of dexamethasone at 0.75 GA on fetal ovine resistance artery responses to ET-1.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
281:
R261-R268,
2001
21.
Docherty, CC,
Kalmar-Nagy J,
Engelen M,
and
Nathanielsz PW.
Development of fetal vascular responses to endothelin-1 and acetylcholine in the sheep.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
280:
R554-R562,
2001
22.
Draper, ML,
Wang J,
Valego N,
Block WA, Jr,
and
Rose JC.
Effect of renal denervation on renin gene expression, concentration, and secretion in mature ovine fetus.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
279:
R263-R270,
2000
23.
Fang, L,
Nowicki B,
and
Yallampalli C.
Differential expression of uterine NO in pregnant and nonpregnant rats with intrauterine bacterial infection.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
280:
R1356-R1363,
2001
24.
Ervin, MG,
Padbury JF,
Polk DH,
Ikegami M,
Berry LM,
and
Jobe AH.
Antenatal glucocorticoids alter premature newborn lamb neuroendocrine and endocrine responses to hypoxia.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
279:
R830-R838,
2000
25.
Fiorotto, ML,
Davis TA,
and
Reeds PJ.
Regulation of myofibrillar protein turnover during maturation in normal and undernourished rat pups.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
278:
R845-R854,
2000
26.
Frank, MG,
Srere H,
Ledezma C,
O'Hara B,
and
Heller HC.
Prenatal nicotine alters vigilance states and AchR gene expression in the neonatal rat: implications for SIDS.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
280:
R1134-R1140,
2001
27.
Gandley, RE,
Conrad KP,
and
McLaughlin MK.
Endothelin and nitric oxide mediate reduced myogenic reactivity of small renal arteries from pregnant rats.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
280:
R1-R7,
2001
28.
Giussani, DA,
Gardner DS,
Cox DT,
and
Fletcher AJ.
Purinergic contribution to circulatory, metabolic, and adrenergic responses to acute hypoxemia in fetal sheep.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
280:
R678-R685,
2001
29.
Gross, G,
Imamura T,
Vogt SK,
Wozniak DF,
Nelson DM,
Sadovsky Y,
and
Muglia LJ.
Inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2 prevents inflammation-mediated preterm labor in the mouse.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
278:
R1415-R1423,
2000
30.
Harris, AP,
Helou S,
Gleason CA,
Traystman RJ,
and
Koehler RC.
Fetal cerebral and peripheral circulatory responses to hypoxia after nitric oxide synthase inhibition.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
281:
R381-R390,
2001
31.
Hawkins, P,
Steyn C,
Ozaki T,
Saito T,
Noakes DE,
and
Hanson MA.
Effect of maternal undernutrition in early gestation on ovine fetal blood pressure and cardiovascular reflexes.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
279:
R340-R348,
2000
32.
Hefler, LA,
Tempfer CB,
Moreno RM,
O'Brien WE,
and
Gregg AR.
Endothelial-derived nitric oxide and angiotensinogen: blood pressure and metabolism during mouse pregnancy.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
280:
R174-R182,
2001
33.
Hines, T.
Baroreceptor afferent discharge in the pregnant rat.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
278:
R1433-R1440,
2000
34.
Hines, T,
and
Herzer WA.
Effect of cardiac receptor stimulation on renal vascular resistance in the pregnant rat.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
278:
R171-R178,
2000
35.
Hines, T,
and
Hodgson TM.
Pregnancy alters cardiac receptor afferent discharge in rats.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
278:
R149-R156,
2000
36.
Imamura, T,
Luedke CE,
Vogt SK,
and
Muglia LJ.
Oxytocin modulates the onset of murine parturition by competing ovarian and uterine effects.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
279:
R1061-R1067,
2000
37.
Jaillard, S,
Houfflin-Debarge V,
Riou Y,
Rakza T,
Klosowski S,
Lequien P,
and
Storme L.
Effects of catecholamines on the pulmonary circulation in the ovine fetus.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
281:
R607-R614,
2001
38.
Johansson, M,
Jansson T,
and
Powell TL.
Na+-K+-ATPase is distributed to microvillous and basal membrane of the syncytiotrophoblast in human placenta.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
279:
R287-R294,
2000
39.
Petersen, YM,
Burrin DG,
and
Sangild PT.
GLP-2 has differential effects on small intestine growth and function in fetal and neonatal pigs.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
281:
R1986-R1993,
2001
40.
Kanashiro, CA,
Cockrell KL,
Alexander BT,
Granger JP,
and
Khalil RA.
Pregnancy-associated reduction in vascular protein kinase C activity rebounds during inhibition of NO synthesis.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
278:
R295-R303,
2000
41.
Keller-Wood, M,
and
Wood CE.
Pregnancy alters cortisol feedback inhibition of stimulated ACTH: studies in adrenalectomized ewes.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
280:
R1790-R1798,
2001
42.
Koos, BJ,
Chau A,
Matsuura M,
Punla O,
and
Kruger L.
Thalamic lesions dissociate breathing inhibition by hypoxia and adenosine in fetal sheep.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
278:
R831-R837,
2000
43.
Lane, RH,
Kelley DE,
Gruetzmacher EM,
and
Devaskar SU.
Uteroplacental insufficiency alters hepatic fatty acid-metabolizing enzymes in juvenile and adult rats.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
280:
R183-R190,
2001
44.
Lang, U,
Baker RS,
Khoury J,
and
Clark KE.
Effects of chronic reduction in uterine blood flow on fetal and placental growth in the sheep.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
279:
R53-R59,
2000
45.
Lo, F,
and
Kaufman S.
Effect of 5-pregnan-3-ol-20-one on nitric oxide biosynthesis and plasma volume in rats.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
280:
R1902-R1905,
2001
46.
Long, W,
Zhang L,
and
Longo LD.
Cerebral artery sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ stores and contractility: changes with development.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
279:
R860-R873,
2000
47.
Marsh, AC,
Gibson KJ,
Wu J,
Owens PC,
Owens JA,
and
Lumbers ER.
Chronic effect of insulin-like growth factor I on renin synthesis, secretion, and renal function in fetal sheep.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
281:
R318-R326,
2001
48.
Melendez, JA,
Vinci JM,
Jeffrey JJ,
and
Wilcox BD.
Localization and regulation of IL-1 in rat myometrium during late pregnancy and the postpartum period.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
280:
R879-R888,
2001
49.
Mollanji, R,
Papaiconomou C,
Boulton M,
Midha R,
and
Johnston M.
Comparison of cerebrospinal fluid transport in fetal and adult sheep.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
281:
R1215-R1223,
2001
50.
Moritz, K,
Koukoulas I,
Albiston A,
and
Wintour EM.
Angiotensin II infusion to the midgestation ovine fetus: effects on the fetal kidney.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
279:
R1290-R1297,
2000
51.
Moss, TJ,
Sloboda DM,
Gurrin LC,
Harding R,
Challis JR,
and
Newnham JP.
Programming effects in sheep of prenatal growth restriction and glucocorticoid exposure.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
281:
R960-R970,
2001
52.
Murphy, JG,
Fleming JB,
Cockrell KL,
Granger JP,
and
Khalil RA.
[Ca2+]i signaling in renal arterial smooth muscle cells of pregnant rat is enhanced during inhibition of NOS.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
280:
R87-R99,
2001
53.
Ramirez, RJ,
Novak J,
Johnston TP,
Gandley RE,
McLaughlin MK,
and
Hubel CA.
Endothelial function and myogenic reactivity in small mesenteric arteries of hyperlipidemic pregnant rats.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
281:
R1330-R1337,
2001
54.
Renolleau, S,
Dauger S,
Autret F,
Vardon G,
Gaultier C,
and
Gallego J.
Maturation of baseline breathing and of hypercapnic and hypoxic ventilatory responses in newborn mice.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
281:
R1746-R1753,
2001
55.
Reznikov, LL,
Shames BD,
Barton HA,
Selzman CH,
Fantuzzi G,
Kim SH,
Johnson SM,
and
Dinarello CA.
Interleukin-1 deficiency results in reduced NF-
B levels in pregnant mice.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
278:
R263-R270,
2000
56.
Rosen, O,
Suarez C,
Schuster VL,
and
Brion LP.
Expression of carbonic anhydrase IV in mouse placenta.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
280:
R365-R375,
2001
57.
Rosenfeld, CR.
Mechanisms regulating angiotensin II responsiveness by the uteroplacental circulation.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
281:
R1025-R1040,
2001
58.
Sarkar, S,
Tsai SW,
Nguyen TT,
Plevyak M,
Padbury JF,
and
Rubin LP.
Inhibition of placental 11-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 by catecholamines via -adrenergic signaling.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
281:
R1966-R1974,
2001
59.
Segar, JL,
Bedell KA,
and
Smith OJ.
Glucocorticoid modulation of cardiovascular and autonomic function in preterm lambs: role of ANG II.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
280:
R646-R654,
2001
60.
Segar, JL,
Dalshaug GB,
Bedell KA,
Smith OM,
and
Scholz TD.
Angiotensin II in cardiac pressure-overload hypertrophy in fetal sheep.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
281:
R2037-R2047,
2001
61.
Shah, S,
Hobbs A,
Singh R,
Cuevas J,
Ignarro LJ,
and
Chaudhuri G.
Gastrointestinal motility during pregnancy: role of nitrergic component of NANC nerves.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
279:
R1478-R1485,
2000
62.
Shah, S,
Nathan L,
Singh R,
Fu YS,
and
Chaudhuri G.
E2 and not P4 increases NO release from NANC nerves of the gastrointestinal tract: implications in pregnancy.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
280:
R1546-R1554,
2001
63.
Siman, CM,
Sibley CP,
Jones CJ,
Turner MA,
and
Greenwood SL.
The functional regeneration of syncytiotrophoblast in cultured explants of term placenta.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
280:
R1116-R1122,
2001
64.
Smolich, JJ.
NO supports right ventricular flow dominance and whole body O2 utilization in midgestation fetal lambs.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
280:
R1016-R1022,
2001
65.
Sohl, BD,
Cheung CY,
Widness JA,
and
Brace RA.
Erythropoietin responses to progressive blood loss over 10 days in the ovine fetus.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
281:
R1051-R1058,
2001
66.
Speth, RC,
Smith MS,
and
Grove KL.
Lactation decreases angiotensinogen mRNA expression in the midcaudal arcuate nucleus of the rat brain.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
280:
R1169-R1176,
2001
67.
Steiger Burgos, M,
Senn M,
Sutter F,
Kreuzer M,
and
Langhans W.
Effect of water restriction on feeding and metabolism in dairy cows.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
280:
R418-R427,
2001
68.
St-Pierre, MV,
Serrano MA,
Macias RI,
Dubs U,
Hoechli M,
Lauper U,
Meier PJ,
and
Marin JJ.
Expression of members of the multidrug resistance protein family in human term placenta.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
279:
R1495-R1503,
2000
69.
Takahashi, Y,
Roman C,
Chemtob S,
Tse MM,
Lin E,
Heymann MA,
and
Clyman RI.
Cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors constrict the fetal lamb ductus arteriosus both in vitro and in vivo.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
278:
R1496-R1505,
2000
70.
Thompson, LP,
Aguan K,
Pinkas G,
and
Weiner CP.
Chronic hypoxia increases the NO contribution of acetylcholine vasodilation of the fetal guinea pig heart.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
279:
R1813-R1820,
2000
71.
Thureen, PJ,
Anderson SM,
and
Hay WW, Jr.
Regulation of uterine and umbilical amino acid uptakes by maternal amino acid concentrations.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
279:
R849-R859,
2000
72.
Umur, A,
Van Gemert MJ,
and
Ross MG.
Amniotic fluid and hemodynamic model in monochorionic twin pregnancies and twin-twin transfusion syndrome.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
280:
R1499-R1509,
2001
73.
Wlodek, ME,
Westcott KT,
Ho PW,
Serruto A,
Di Nicolantonio R,
Farrugia W,
and
Moseley JM.
Reduced fetal, placental, and amniotic fluid PTHrP in the growth-restricted spontaneously hypertensive rat.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
279:
R31-R38,
2000
74.
Wu, WX,
Ma XH,
Smith GC,
Mecenas CA,
Koenen SV,
and
Nathanielsz PW.
Prostaglandin dehydrogenase mRNA in baboon intrauterine tissues in late gestation and spontaneous labor.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
279:
R1082-R1090,
2000
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
 |
|
  T. Konno, L. A. Rempel, J. A. Arroyo, and M. J. Soares Pregnancy in the Brown Norway Rat: A Model for Investigating the Genetics of Placentation Biol Reprod, April 1, 2007; 76(4): 709 - 718. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 C. M. Anderson, F. Lopez, H.-Y. Zhang, Y. Shirasawa, K. Pavlish, and J. N. Benoit Mesenteric Vascular Responsiveness in a Rat Model of Pregnancy-Induced Hypertension Experimental Biology and Medicine, September 1, 2006; 231(8): 1398 - 1402. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. L. Blair and D. Mickelsen Plasma protein and blood volume restitution after hemorrhage in conscious pregnant and ovarian steroid-replaced rats Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, February 1, 2006; 290(2): R425 - R434. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
P. S. Tappia, M. S. Nijjar, A. Mahay, N. Aroutiounova, and N. S. Dhalla Phospholipid profile of developing heart of rats exposed to low-protein diet in pregnancy Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, November 1, 2005; 289(5): R1400 - R1406. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
| Visit Other APS Journals Online |
